17th Century

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  Viceroyalties, Audiencias, and Cabildos in Spanish America

  Spanish America before the Bourbon reforms was governed through layered institutions that made royal power depend on negotiation.

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  Charles I and the Origins of the English Civil War

  The English Civil War grew from disputes over taxation, religion, Parliament, and control of armed force under Charles I.

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  Colonial Brazil (1500-1822): Politics, Economy and Society

  For three centuries, Brazil was ruled by Portugal under a harsh colonial system whose practices continued long after independence.

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  The Life of African Slaves in Brazil: Violence and Resistance

  Africans and their descendants lived in subjugation in Brazil, but they resisted it and left a legacy in Brazilian society.

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  African Slave Trade to Brazil: Causes, Operation, and End

  From the 1500s to 1850, the Atlantic slave trade carried millions of Africans to Brazil and sustained colonial slavery.

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  Indigenous Slavery in Brazil: Motives, Obstacles, and Laws

  Indigenous labor was widely used in the early stages of Brazil’s colonization and persisted in various regions even after successive laws prohibited it.

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  Dutch Brazil: Conquest, Reconquest and Legacy

  In the 17th century, the Netherlands gained control of a significant part of Brazil, seeking to dominate the sugar trade.

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  English Revolutions in the 17th Century: An Overview

  England’s 17th-century revolutions turned Stuart conflict, civil war, restoration, and invasion into parliamentary monarchy.

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  Brazilian Economy in the Colonial Period

  The economy of Colonial Brazil was characterized by the predominance of sugar and mining, along with some other less relevant activities.